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British Journal of Radiology 74 (2001),1103-1108 © 2001 The British Institute of Radiology

Full paper

Radiographic contrast media induced nephropathy: experimental observations and the protective effect of calcium channel blockers

Y-X J Wang, MD1, Y-F Jia, MSc2, K-M Chen, MD1 and S K Morcos, FRCS, FFRRCSI, FRCR3

1Department of Radiology, Rui Jin Hospital, Shanghai Second Medical University, Shanghai, China, 2College of Pharmacy, Shanghai Medical University, Shanghai, China and 3Department of Diagnostic Imaging, Northern General Hospital, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Sheffield S5 7AU, UK

Correspondence: Dr S K Morcos


   Abstract
Top
 Abstract
Introduction
 Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 
Combined acute inhibition of the synthesis of nitric oxide with L-nitroarginine methyl ester (L-NAME) and of prostacycline synthesis with indomethacin predisposes rats to severe renal injury from radiographic contrast media. The reliability of this pharmacological manipulation in the study of radiographic contrast medium induced nephropathy (RCMN) was investigated. Adult male Sprague–Dawley rats were injected with iv L-NAME (10 mg kg-1) and iv indomethacin (10 mg kg-1) 15 min apart and prior to injection of RCM or normal saline (control group). A dose-dependent reduction in renal function was observed after intravascular injection of the high osmolar RCM diatrizoate (Angiografin, 306 mgI ml-1). A significant (p<0.01) increase in serum creatinine (Cr) (from 54.66±8.39 µmol l-1 to 171.96±24.49 µmol l-1 and from 80.95±6.73 µmol l-1 to 204.76±16.73 µmol -1, n=5 per group) was observed 24 h after injection of 6 ml and 8 ml of diatrizoate, respectively. The increase in serum Cr after injection of 8 ml of diatrizoate recovered spontaneously to 80.87±8.70 µmol l-1 7 days after injection. No significant change in renal function was observed in the control group (n=5) receiving 8 ml kg-1 of normal saline or after injection of 4 ml of diatrizoate (serum Cr 69.84±5.5 µmol l-1 pre contrast injection and 66.67±13.47 µmol l-1 24 h post contrast injection, n=5). The increase in serum Cr observed with 6 ml of diatrizoate was significantly higher (p<0.01) than the rise induced by equivolume of the low osmolar non-ionic monomer iopromide (Ultravist, 300 mgI ml-1) (serum CR 68.47±8.39 µmol l-1 pre contrast injection and 143.59±32.03 µmol l-1 24 h post contrast injection, n=5). The calcium channel blocker diltiazem (10 mg kg-1 injected intraperitoneally 30 min prior to RCM injection) prevented the rise in serum Cr observed with 6 ml of diatrizoate (serum Cr pre contrast injection 70.31±7.28 µmol-1 and 78.21±17.81 µmol-1 24 h post contrast injection in animals pre-treated with diltiazem, n=5). The protective effect against RCM-induced reduction in renal function was less with lower doses of diltiazem. In conclusion, the animal model used is reliable and reproduced previously established observations in the field of RCMN. The protective effect of a calcium channel blocker at the appropriate dose against RCMN has also been shown. The clinical effectiveness of this class of drugs in preventing RCMN requires further evaluation.


   Introduction
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 
Radiographic contrast medium (RCM) induced nephropathy (RCMN) remains an important cause of hospital-acquired renal failure [1–3]. The incidence of RCMN is likely to increase with the wide use of spiral CT imaging with intravascular contrast enhancement, including CT angiography and perfusion studies, as well as interventional cardiovascular procedures particularly in patients with compromised general health. An understanding of the mechanisms responsible for the renal effects of RCMN has improved with the use of a wide range of experimental animal models [4]. The endogenous biological substances endothelin and adenosine have recently been identified as important mediators of the renal effects of radiographic contrast media [5,6]. Renal ischaemia appears to be an important prerequisite for the development of RCMN, which is difficult to induce in animals with normal renal function and perfusion. Several experimental animal models have been used in studies of RCMN, including rabbits pre-conditioned by salt depletion and indomethacin [7], rats exposed to multiple insults (uninephrectomy, pre-treatment with indomethacin and salt depletion for several days before RCM administration) [8], rats with hypertension induced by oral L-nitroarginine methyl ester (L-NAME) for several weeks before the administration of RCM [9], dogs with congestive heart failure produced by rapid ventricular pacing [10], aging spontaneously hypertensive male rats [11] and rats with renal ischaemia induced by the combined acute inhibition of the synthesis of the endogenous vasodilators nitric oxide and prostacycline [12]. The latter model is easy to prepare, involves only an acute pharmacological pre-treatment and does not require surgical intervention. In this study we have investigated the reliability of this animal model in the investigation of RCMN. The dose dependency and time course of the renal effects of RCM has also been assessed, as well as comparing the renal tolerance of high osmolar and low osmolar radiographic contrast media and the protective effect of a calcium channel blocker against RCMN.


   Methods
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Methods
Results
 Discussion
 References
 
Experimental protocol
Adult male Sprague–Dawley rats (200–350 g, Shanghai Medical University breed, China) were kept in metabolic cages for 24 h prior to the insults, with free access to tap water and standard rat chow. After a baseline 24-h urine collection, the rats were anaesthetized with intraperitoneal injection of sodium pentobarbital (4 mg per 100 g body weight). The left femoral vein and artery were cannulated and a baseline blood sample (1 ml) was drawn from the femoral vein. 10 mg kg-1 indomethacin and 10 mg kg-1 L-NAME were administered via the femoral vein at 15 min intervals. After an additional 15 min, RCM or 0.9% normal saline (control) were injected via the femoral artery cannulation. The rats were kept in the metabolic cages for another 24 h for urine collection, without access to water but freely fed with standard rat chow. At the end of this period rats were anaesthetized with ether gas and a blood sample (1 ml) was drawn, either from the inferior vena cava at laparotomy (in experiments 1, 2 and 4 rats were sacrificed at this stage) or from the femoral vein (experiment 3). The rats were allowed to recover, with free access to tap water and standard rat chow. Blood was sampled 7 days later from the right femoral vein under brief ether anaesthesia (experiment 3).

Serum and urine creatinine (Cr) were determined by standard colorimetric methods using a 721 Spectrophotometer (Shanghai No. 3 Analytical Instrument Factory, Shanghai, China).

(1) Effects of different doses of RCM on renal function
After the injection of indomethacin and L-NAME, rats were injected with either 4 ml kg-1, 6 ml kg-1 or 8 ml kg-1 of diatrizoate (306 mgI) or 8 ml kg-1 of normal saline (control group) via the femoral arterial cannula over a 5 min period (n=5 per group). Serum Cr and Cr clearance were measured 24 h pre and 24 h post injection of diatrizoate or saline, as indicated in the experimental protocol.

(2) Effects of the high osmolar diatrizoate and the low osmolar iopromide on renal function
After injection of standard doses of indomethacin and L-NAME, either 6 ml kg-1 of diatrizoate (306 mgI ml-1) or iopromide (300 mgI ml-1) were administered via the femoral arterial cannula over a 5 min period (n=5 per group). Serum Cr and Cr clearance were measured 24 h pre and 24 h post injection of RCM, as indicated in the experimental protocol.

(3) Time course of renal function after injection of diatrizoate
After injection of standard does of indomethacin and L-NAME, 8 ml kg-1 (306 mgI ml-1) of diatrizoate were administered via the femoral arterial cannula over a 5 min period (n=5). Serum Cr was measured 24 h before the insults and 24 h after and 7 days after the injection of diatrizoate.

(4) Effect of the calcium antagonist diltiazem in preventing RCMN
After injection of standard doses of indomethacin and L-NAME, an intraperitoneal injection of either 2 mg kg-1, 6 mg kg-1 or 10 mg kg-1 of diltiazem (4 ml for all three groups with the concentration of dilitiazem being 0.5 mg ml-1, 1.5 mg ml-1 and 2.5 mg ml-1, respectively) or 4 ml of normal saline control group was given. 30 min later, 6 ml kg-1 of diatrizoate (306 mgI ml-1) was administered via the femoral arterial cannula over a 5 min period (n=5 per group). Serum Cr and Cr clearance were measured 24 h pre and 24 h post injection of diatrizoate, as indicated in the experimental protocol.

Materials
The radiographic contrast media used were the high osmolar ionic monomer diatrizoate (Angiographin, 306 mgI ml-1; Schering AG, Berlin, Germany) (osmolality 1500 mosmol kg-1 H2O) and the low osmolar non-ionic monomer iopromide (Ultravist, 300 mgI ml-1; Schering AG, Berlin, Germany) (osmolality 610 mosmol kg-1 H2O). Indomethacin (Sigma Chemical Co., St Louis, MO) was dissolved in phosphate buffer (pH 8–9) at a concentration of 3.3 mg ml-1. L-NAME (L-Nitro-arginine methyl ester) (Sigma Chemical Co. St Louis, MO), was dissolved in 0.9% normal saline at a concentration of 4 mg ml-1. Diltiazem (Shanghai Yan'an Pharmaceutical Factory, Shanghai, China) was dissolved in 0.9% normal saline at concentrations of 0.5 mg ml-1 1.5 mg ml-1 and 2.5 mg ml-1 respectively.

Analysis of results
All values were reported as mean±standard deviation (SD). Serum Cr levels were presented in µmol l-1. When comparing the magnitude of serum Cr between groups, the changes in percentage, i.e. [(serum Cr after insults - serum Cr before insults)/serum Cr before insults] x 100%, were applied. Cr clearance was measured using the formula UV/P, where U=Cr concentration in urine, V=urine volume min-1 and P=serum Cr. The percentage change of Cr clearance before and after the insults {[(Cr clearance before insults-Cr clearance after insults)/Cr clearance before insults] x 100%} were presented.

The Student's t-test for paired data was used to determine the significant differences within groups. Analysis of variance was used for comparisons between groups. p<0.05 was considered significant.


   Results
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Methods
 Results
Discussion
 References
 
Experiment 1
The control group (n=5) receiving 8 ml kg-1 of normal saline showed no significant changes in serum Cr or Cr clearance (Figure 1Go). Animals injected with diatrizoate showed dose-dependent changes in serum Cr and Cr clearance (Figure 1Go).



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  		Figure 1. Effects of different doses of radiographic contrast medium on renal function of rats pre-treated with indomethacin and L-nitroarginine methyl ester (L-NAME). (a) Serum creatinine (Cr) before ({square}) and 24 h after () injection of 8 ml kg-1 saline (Group 1, control) or increasing doses of diatrizoate (Group 2, 4 ml kg-1; Group 3, 6 ml kg-1; and Group 4, 8 ml kg-1). Significant increases (*p<0.01) in serum Cr occurred in Groups 3 and 4, but no significant rise occurred in Groups 1 and 2 (n=5 per group). The rise in serum Cr in Group 4 was significantly higher (p<0.05) than in Group 3. (b) Percentage change in Cr clearance from baseline (24 h pre injection) to 24 h post injection with 8 ml kg-1 saline (Group 1, control) or increasing doses of diatrizoate (Group 2, 4 ml kg-1; Group 3, 6 ml kg-1; and Group 4, 8 ml kg-1. Significant decreases (*p<0.01) in Cr clearance occurred in Groups 3 and 4 but no significant change occurred in Groups 1 and 2 (n=5 per group). The decrease in Cr clearance in Group 4 was larger (p<0.05) than in Group 3.

 
Experiment 2
The effects of the ionic RCM diatrizoate on renal function were more severe than those of the non-ionic RCM iopromide (Figure 2Go).



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  		Figure 2. Effects of the high osmolar diatrizoate and low osmolar iopromide on renal function of rats pre-treated with indomethacin and L-nitroarginine methyl ester (L-NAME). (a) Serum creatinine (Cr) before ({square}) and 24 h after () injection of either 6 ml kg-1 of diatrizoate (Group 1) or iopromide (Group 2). Significant increases (*p<0.01) in serum Cr occurred in both groups, but the rise in Group 1 was significantly higher (p<0.05) than in Group 2 (n=5 per group). (b) Percentage in Cr clearance from baseline (24 h pre injection) to 24 h post injection of 6 ml kg-1 of diatrizoate (Group 1) or iopromide (Group 2). Significant decreases (*p<0.01) in Cr clearance occurred in both groups, but the reduction in Group 1 was more severe (p<0.05) than in Group 2 (n=5 per group).

 
Experiment 3
The rise in serum Cr induced by 8 ml kg-1 of diatrizoate at 24 h post contrast injection recovered spontaneously at 7 days (Figure 3Go).



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  		Figure 3. Time course of renal function after injection of diatrizoate in rats pre-treated with indomethacin and L-nitroarginine methyl ester (L-NAME). Significant increase (*p<0.01) in serum creatinine (Cr) occurred 24 h after injection of 8 ml kg-1 of diatrizoate. Serum Cr returned to a level comparable with baseline (pre insult) 7 days after the injection of diatrizoate(n=5).

 
Experiment 4
The calcium antagonist diltiazem (10 mg kg-1) offered significant protection against the reduction in renal function induced by 6 ml kg-1 of diatrizoate (Figure 4Go). Rats pre-treated with diltiazem (10 mg kg-1) showed no significant rise in serum Cr (serum Cr at baseline 70.31±7.28 µmol l-1 and 78.27±17.85 µmol l-1 24 h post contrast) but there was some reduction in Cr clearance (percentage decrease in Cr clearance 17.3±4.7%, p<0.01). This reduction was significantly less in comparison with the other groups (Figure 4bGo). Some protection was also observed in rats pre-treated with lower doses of diltiazem, but a significant serum Cr increase and Cr clearance reduction remained (Figure 4Go).



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  		Figure 4. The effect of the calcium antagonist diltiazem in preventing radiographic contrast medium induced-nephropathy in rats pre-treated with indomethacin and L-nitroarginine methyl ester (L-NAME). (a) Serum creatinine(Cr) before ({square}) and 24 h after () injection of 6 ml diatrizoate in rats following intraperitoneal injection of either 4 ml of normal saline (Group 1) or diltiazem (Group 2, 2 mg kg-1; Group 3, 6 mg kg-1; or Group 4, 10 mg kg-1). Significant increase (*p<0.01) in serum Cr occurred in Groups 1, 2 and 3 but no significant rise occurred in Group 4 (n=5 per group). Comparison of the percentage rise in serum Cr from baseline between groups was: Group 1>Group 2 (p<0.05), Group 2>Group 3 (p<0.05) and Group 3>Group 4 (p<0.01). (b) Percentage change in Cr clearance from baseline (24 h pre injection) to 24 h post injection of 6 ml diatrizoate in rats with introperitoneal injection of either 4 ml of normal saline (Group 1) or diltiazem (Group 2, 2 mg kg-1; Group 3, 6 mg kg-1; or Group 4, 10 mg kg-1). Significant decreases (*p<0.01) in Cr clearance occurred in all groups (n=5 per group). The smallest reduction occurred in Group 4. The extent of reduction was: Group 2>Group 3 (p<0.01), Group 3>Group 4 (p<0.01). No significant difference was found between Groups 1 and 2.

 

   Discussion
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Methods
 Results
 Discussion
References
 
Animal models are required for the study of the pathophysiology of RCMN. It is important that in vivo animal models are simple but clinically relevant. RCMN in man often occurs in patients with endothelial dysfunction, such as those suffering from diabetes mellitus, hypertension and atherosclerosis. It is also well documented in the literature that the intrarenal vasodilators prostacycline and nitric oxide, which are produced by healthy endothelium, are important for the perfusion of the renal medulla, which is particularly vulnerable to the ischaemic insult associated with the intravascular administration of RCM [12]. Whilst normal rats are resistant to the development of RCMN, combined acute inhibition of the synthesis of nitric oxide and prostacycline via the administration of L-NAME and indomethacin, respectively, predisposes rats to severe renal injury from RCM [12]. Implementing these acute pharmacological manipulations to inhibit the renal synthesis of nitric oxide and prostacycline obviated the need for chronic preparation or surgical intervention required in other experimental animal models [8]. This study, in agreement with previous reports, has shown the reliability of this simple animal model in studying RCMN. It has reconfirmed that RCMN is dose dependent and the reduction in renal function can spontaneously recover within 7 days of RCM administration [2, 13, 14]. It has also shown the renal tolerance to a non-ionic low osmolar RCM to be higher in comparison with high osmolar ionic media. These findings are compatible with clinical observations, including the lower frequency of RCMN in patients with impaired renal function receiving a low osmolar RCM in comparison with those injected with high osmolar media [2, 14–16].

Calcium ions play a crucial role in the physiology of smooth muscle cells. Constriction of smooth muscle cells is a function of intracellular calcium ion concentration. Although the sarcoplasmic reticulum contains an intracellular calcium ion pool that can be mobilized to give transient increases in the myoplasmic calcium ion concentration, sustained contraction of smooth muscle is totally dependent on the extracellular calcium pool and its influx. Central to the efficacy of calcium channel blockers is their ability to reduce transmembrane movement of calcium ions through the voltage-sensitive, calcium ion-selective channels. They disrupt excitation–contraction coupling by specific binding to high affinity sites in the plasmalemma. Calcium channel blockers therefore exert a pronounced vasorelaxant effect in the kidney and in other vascular beds. In addition to their complex influence on the renal microvascular circulation, calcium channel blockers have a cytoprotective effect on renal cells by a number of additional mechanisms. These include inhibition of intracellular calcium "overload" after ischaemic or toxic injuries, a decrease in free radical formation, the modulation of mesangial traffic of macromolecules, a reduction in renal hypertrophy and even the control of immune response [17].

The role of calcium channel blockers in preventing RCMN has been investigated in both experimental animal models and clinical trials. It has been shown in the dog that calcium channel blockers inhibit RCM-induced intrarenal vasoconstriction [18]. However, results of clinical trials have been conflicting and the dosage of calcium channel blockers used in these studies could be a responsible factor. Prospective randomized clinical studies have shown that 3-day pre-treatment with a calcium channel blocker (20 mg day-1 nitrendipine orally, starting 1 day before contrast medium injection) protected against RCMN [19]. On the other hand, a single dose of 10 mg or 20 mg nitrendipine orally 1 h prior to RCM injection failed to prevent the development of RCMN [20, 21]. Our experimental results suggest that calcium channel blockers can offer good protection against RCMN, but this effect is dose dependent. Small doses (<10 mg kg-1 body weight) of the calcium channel blocker diltiazem did not provide good protection against the reduction in renal function induced by RCM. Further clinical studies using appropriate dosage are required to confirm the effectiveness of this class of drugs in prevention of RCMN.

Effective prevention of RCMN remains a contentious subject. The use of a low osmolar RCM, adequate hydration and volume expansion with saline infusion for several hours before and after RCM injection offer some protection against this complication [14]. The use of adenosine receptor antagonists, such as theophylines, have also been advocated, but clinical experience remains limited [2]. Endothelin (ET) antagonists have also been considered, but the only single clinical study using ET non-selective receptor antagonists has shown that this class of drug does not offer any protection [22]. However, the use of a selective ET-A receptor antagonist may offer some protection [4]. It is of interest that ET-induced vasoconstriction can also be prevented by calcium channel blockade [23]. It is therefore reasonable to suggest that a calcium channel blocker may have the same effect as an ET-A receptor antagonist in protecting the kidney against the ischaemic insult of RCM. Further investigations are required to compare the effectiveness of these two classes of drug in preventing RCMN.

A recent study has shown that RCMN can be prevented by the prophylactic administration of the antioxidant acetylcystein (600 mg orally twice daily, 24 h before and continued for 24 h after RCM injection) and hydration with 0.45% saline (1 mg kg-1 body weight) infused 12 h before and 12 h after contrast injection [24]. However, the number of patients recruited in this study was small and small doses of iv RCM (75 ml of 300 mgI ml-1 iopromide) were given to patients. 12% of these patients had an increase in serum Cr level of more than 44 µmol l-1 within 48 h after contrast medium administration; 2% in the acetylcysteine group and 21% in the control group. Further studies are required to validate the effectiveness of acetylcystine in preventing RCMN, particularly when larger doses of RCM are used or following intra-arterial administration. Nevertheless, the low cost of acetylcystine, its general availability, its limited side effects and its ease of administration makes the drug very attractive for routine use in prevention of RCMN.

Received for publication July 4, 2001. Accepted for publication July 20, 2001.


   References
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 

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